(Jody Gray) In my opinion, the main reason for studying history is to find the “origins” of things. Human personality traits. Evil vs Good. Superiority and the “right to rule”. Ownership of land and “entitlement”. Etc… pretty much, I see plus and minus in almost everything, e.g. ethnic pride, nationalism, (patriotism), religion... unfortunately, these ideologies (and their dogmas) are used to justify racism, eugenics and genocide… I believe racism is not a natural human trait but a “learned” concept. However, the desire to feel or be superior to someone else seems to be a natural human trait. Every culture appears to have had a “leader” (chieftain); a status (caste) system; slavery; gods or a god; murder… Note: I recommend “clicking-on” the links - I’m not including all the theorists...
The Blog Post connected to this research: House of Munso, Swedish Monarchs. Migration Period. Barbarian Identity… the barbarian polities in late antiquity were social constructs rather than unchanging lines of blood kinship. The process of forming tribal units was called “ethnogenesis” a term coined by Soviet scholar… This core group formed a standard for larger units, gathering adherents by employing amalgamation metaphors such as kinship and aboriginal commonality and claiming that they perpetuated an ancient, divinely-sanctioned lineage…
In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan (in the sense of disparate “nations” which did not yet participate in the Christian oikumene [in present usage, it is used as the noun form of “ecumenical” and describes the Christian Church as a unified whole or the unified modern world civilization] ).
The sense of “different cultural groups”, and in American English “racial, cultural or national minority group” arises in the 1930s to 1940s, serving as a replacement of the term race which was becoming deprecated due to its association with ideological racism. The abstract ethnicity had been used for “paganism” in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an “ethnic character” (first recorded in 1953 -entered in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972). Depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state). The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis.
Herodotus gave a famous account of what defined Greek (Hellenic) ethnic identity in his day: shared descent (of the same blood); shared language; shared sanctuaries and sacrifices; shared customs (like fashion).
Source: “Challenges of Measuring an Ethnic World: Science, politics, and reality” -Proceedings of the Joint Canada-United States Conference on the Measurement of Ethnicity, April 1-3, 1992…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnogenesis Ethnogenesis (from Greek ethos, “group of people, nation” and genesis, “beginning, coming into being”) is “the formation and development of an ethnic group.” This can originate through a process of self-identification as well as come about as the result of outside identification. Passive or active ethnogenesis. Ethnogenesis can occur passively, in the accumulation of markers of group identity forged through interaction with the physical environment, cultural and religious divisions between sections of a society, migrations and other processes, for which ethnic subdivision is an unintended outcome. It can occur actively, as persons deliberately and directly ‘engineer’ separate identities to attempt to solve a political problem -the preservation or imposition of certain cultural values, power relations, etc. Since the late 18th century, such attempts have often been related to language revival or creation of a new language, in what eventually becomes a "national literature" (because they help define a national identity or provide a common reference point for that country’s culture). In the 19th and 20th centuries, societies challenged by the obsolescence of those narratives which previously afforded them coherence have fallen back on ethnic or racial narratives as a means of maintaining or reaffirming their collective identity, or polis.
Inclusive or exclusive nationalism. Ethnogenesis can be promoted to include or exclude any ethnic minority living within a certain country.
Language revival… Finnish nationalism and ethnogenesis: (1892) Fennomans were opposed by the Svecomans, headed by Axel Olof Freudenthal (1836–1911). He supported continuing the use of Swedish as the official language; it had been a minority language used by the educated elite in government and administration. In line with contemporary scientific racism theories, Freudenthal believed that Finland had two “races”, one speaking Swedish and the other Finnish. The Svecomans claimed that the Swedish “Germanic race” was superior to the majority Finnish people.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_racism Scientific racism (sometimes race biology or racial biology or pseudo-scientific racism) is the pseudo-scientific study of techniques and hypotheses to support or justify the belief in racism, racial inferiority, or racial superiority. It is the practice of classifying individuals of different phenotypes into discrete races. Historically it received credence in the scientific community, but is no longer considered scientific. As a category of theory, scientific racism employs (physical) anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry, and other disciplines or pseudo-disciplines, in proposing anthropological typologies supporting the classification of human populations into physically discrete human races, that might be asserted to be superior or inferior Scientific racism was common during the New Imperialism period (c. 1880s-1914) where it was used in justifying white European imperialism, and it was culminated in the period from 1920 to the end of World War II. Since the later 20th century, scientific racism has been criticized as obsolete and has historically been used to support or validate racist worldviews, based upon belief in the existence and significance of racial categories and a hierarchy of superior and inferior races.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_racism Scientific racism (sometimes race biology or racial biology or pseudo-scientific racism) is the pseudo-scientific study of techniques and hypotheses to support or justify the belief in racism, racial inferiority, or racial superiority. It is the practice of classifying individuals of different phenotypes into discrete races. Historically it received credence in the scientific community, but is no longer considered scientific. As a category of theory, scientific racism employs (physical) anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry, and other disciplines or pseudo-disciplines, in proposing anthropological typologies supporting the classification of human populations into physically discrete human races, that might be asserted to be superior or inferior Scientific racism was common during the New Imperialism period (c. 1880s-1914) where it was used in justifying white European imperialism, and it was culminated in the period from 1920 to the end of World War II. Since the later 20th century, scientific racism has been criticized as obsolete and has historically been used to support or validate racist worldviews, based upon belief in the existence and significance of racial categories and a hierarchy of superior and inferior races.
After the end of the 2nd World War, scientific racism in theory and action was formally denounced, especially in UNESCO's early anti-racism statement "The Race Question" (1950): "The biological fact of race and the myth of 'race' should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes 'race' is not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth of 'race' has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In recent years, it has taken a heavy toll in human lives, and caused untold suffering." Such “biological fact” is no longer considered to exist as development in human evolutionary genetics showed that human genetic differences are nearly totally gradual.
The term "scientific racism" is generally used pejoratively as applied to more modern theories, as in The Bell Curve (1994). Critics argue that such works postulate racist conclusions unsupported by available evidence. Publications such as the Mankind Quarterly, founded as an explicitly race-conscious journal, are generally regarded as platforms of scientific racism for publishing articles on fringe interpretations of human evolution, intelligence, ethnography, language, mythology, archaeology, and race subjects.
Antecedents - Classical thinkers (“Origins”) Pseudo-Aristotle notes “The idea that dark people are cowards, and light people courageous fighters, is found already in Airs, Waters, Places by Hippocrates (5th century BC)...
(Jody Gray) interesting (Warrior Culture, ideology): ancient Indians considered all foreigners as barbarians; 11th century Muslim scholar Al-Biruni wrote that the Indians call the foreigners impure… The Chinese also viewed the Europeans as repulsive, ghost-like creatures and even devils… Roman Vitruvius (70-25 BC) relying upon the racial theories of the Greek Stoic polymath Posidonius (c. 135-51 BC), said ...those races nearest to the southern half of the axis are of lower stature, with swarthy complexions, curly hair, black eyes, and little blood, on account of the sun. This poverty of blood makes them over-timid to stand up against the sword… On the other hand, men born in cold countries are, indeed, ready to meet the shock of arms with great courage and without timidity.
Enlightenment thinkers. During the Age of Enlightenment (1650s to 1780s), concepts of monogenism and polygenism became popular, though they would only be systematized epistemologically during the 19th century…
Robert Boyle vs. Henri de Boulainvilliers. Robert Boyle (1627-1691), an Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventory believed in “monogenism”, that all races, no matter how diverse, came from the same source, Adam and Eve. He studied reported stories of parents’ giving birth to different colored albinos, so he concluded that Adam and Eve were originally white and that whites could give birth to different colored races… Henri de Boulainvilliers (1658-1722) divided the French into two races: (i) the aristocratic “French race” descended from the invader Germanic Franks, and (ii) the indigenous Gall-Roman race (the political Third Estate populace). The Frankish aristocracy dominated the Gauls by innate right of conquest (Warrior Culture, ideology), the contrary of modern nationalism.
Voltaire. (1694-1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher. A polygenist: one who believed that each race had separate origins. He found biblical monogenism laughable: It is a serious question among them whether the Africans are descended from monkeys or whether the monkeys come from them. Our wise men have said that man was created in the image of God. Now there is a lovely image of the Divine Maker: a flat and black nose with little or hardly any intelligence… When comparing Europeans to Negroes, Voltaire compared them to different breeds of dog: The Negro race is a species of men different from ours as the breed of spaniels is from that of greyhounds. The mucous membrane, or network, which Nature has spread between the muscles and the skin, is white in us and black or copper-colored in them.
Lord Kames. Scottish lawyer Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696-1782) was a polygenist: he believed God had created different races on Earth in separate regions; the environment, climate, or state of society could not account for racial differences, so the races must have come from distinct, separate stocks.
Carl Linnaeus. (1707-1778) Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist, modified the established taxonomic bases of binomial nomenclature for fauna and flora, and was a pioneer researcher in biologically defining human race. (Jody Gray): he gives physical traits but more interesting are his “personality” traits. Americanus (native): (red) righteous, stubborn, zealous, regulated by customs. Europeanus: (white) gentle (e.g. refined), acute, inventive, regulated by customs. Asiaticus: (yellow) melancholic, severe, haughty, greedy, regulated by opinions. Afer or Africanus: (black) females without shame, mammary glands give milk abundantly, crafty, sly, careless, regulated by will. Monstrosus: (Feral man) “four-footed, mute, hairy”...
John Mitchell. (1711-1768) colonial American doctor... in 1744 An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People in Different Climates.
Immanuel Kant. (1724-1804) a German philosopher who encouraged the examination of man’s inner self rather than making inferences about the inner self based upon the exterior physical self… The yellow Indians do have a meager talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people.
John Hunter. (1728-1793) Scottish surgeon, said that originally the Negroid race was white at birth; over time because of the sun, the people turned dark skinned… blisters and burns would likely turn white on a Negro -evidence that their ancestors were originally white.
Charles White. (1728-1813) English physician and surgeon, believed that races occupied different stations in the “Great Chain of Being” -he tried to scientifically prove that human races have distinct origins from each other… different races had been created separately -divinely created for its own geographical region.
Buffon and Blumenbach. French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) and the German anatomist Johann Blumenbach (1752-1840) were believers in monogenism, the concept that all races have a a single origin. They also believed in the “degeneration theory” of racial origins. The both said that Adam and Eve were Caucasian and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors, such as the sun and poor dieting. They believed that the degeneration could be reversed if proper environmental control was taken, and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original Caucasian race… Blumenbach, “I have allotted the first place to the Caucasian because this stock displays the most beautiful race of men.” Georges-Louis Leclerc believed humanity was only 6000 years old (the time since Adam).
Benjamin Rush. (1745-1813) a Founding Father of the United States and a physician, proposed that being black was a hereditary skin disease, which he called “negroidism,” and that it could be cured… whites should not intermarry with them, for this would tend to infect posterity with the ‘disorder’...
Christoph Meiners. (1747-1810) a German polygenist believed that each race had a separate origin. He built a race hierarchy splitting mankind into two divisions, which he labelled the “beautiful white race” and the “ugly black race”. He considered ugly races to be inferior, immoral and animal-like… He went as far as to say that the Negro has “no human, barely any animal, feeling”... the skull of the Negro was larger but the brain smaller than any other race… the most unhealthy race on Earth because of its poor diet, mode of living and lack of morals… “Americans” were an inferior stock of people… the noblest race was the Celts… able to conquer various parts of the world (Warrior Culture, ideology)… Slavs are an inferior race… He also studied the sexology of each race, claiming the African Negroids have unduly strong and perverted sex drives, whilst only the white Europeans have it just right.
Samuel Stanhope Smith. (1751-1819) an American Presbyterian Minister and author of Essay on the Causes of Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species in 1787. Claimed that Negro pigmentation was nothing more than a huge freckle that covered the whole body as a result of an oversupply of bile, which was caused by tropical climates.
Georges Cuvier. (1769-1832) French naturalist and zoologist, influenced scientific polygenism and scientific racism. He believed there were three distinct races: the Caucasian (white), Mongolian (yellow) and the Ethiopian (black). He rated each for beauty or ugliness of the skull and quality of their civilizations. “The white race, with oval face, straight hair and nose, to which the civilised people of Europe belong and which appear to us the most beautiful of all, is also superior to others by its genius, courage and activity.” “The Negro race… is marked by black complexion, crisped or wooly hair, compressed cranium and a flat nose. The projection of the lower parts of the face, and the thick lips, evidently approximate it to the monkey tribe: the hordes of which it consists have always remained in the most complete state of barbarism.” He thought Adam and Eve were Caucasian and hence the original race of mankind. The other two races arose by survivors’ escaping in different directions after a major catastrophe hit the earth 5,000 years ago...
G.W.F. Hegel. (1770-1831) presented a strong evolutionist account of history… justified European imperialism until the 1st World War (1914-18). Hegel declared that “Africa is no historical part of the world.” (having) no “sense of personality; their spirit sleeps… makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent.”
Arthur Schopenhauer. (1788-1860) German philosopher attributed civilizational primacy to the white races, who gained sensitivity and intelligence via the refinement caused by living in the rigorous Northern climate: ...because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers, and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want, and misery… and out of it all came their high civilization.
Franz Ignaz Pruner. (1808-1882) a medical doctor who studied the racial structure of Negroes in Egypt… He published a monograph on Negroes in 1861. He claimed that the main feature of the Negro's skeleton is prognathism [positional relationship of the mandible and/or maxilla to the skeletal base], which he claimed was the Negro's relation to the ape. He also claimed that Negroes had very similar brains to apes and that Negroes have a shortened big toe, which is a characteristic connecting Negroes closely to apes.
Scientific classification established by Carl Linnaeus… In the 19th century, unilineal evolution (aka classical social evolution) -from primitive to civilized, from agricultural to industrial -became popular among philosophers… The Christian Bible was interpreted to sanction slavery and from the 1820s to the 1850s was often used in the antebellum Southern United States, by writers such as the Rev. Richard Furman and Thomas R. Cobb, to enforce the idea that Negroes had been created inferior, and thus suited to slavery.
Charles Darwin. 1859 book On the Origin of Species did not discuss human origins. The extended wording on the title page, which adds by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, uses the general term “races” as an alternative for “varieties” and does not carry the modern connotation of human races. In The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871), Darwin examined the question of “Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species” and reported no racial distinctions that would indicate that human races are discrete species: It may be doubted whether any character can be named, which is distinctive of a race and is constant… they graduate into each other, and… it is hardly possible to discover clear, distinctive characters between them… As it is improbably that the numerous, and unimportant, points of resemblance, between the several races of man, in bodily structure and mental faculties (I do not here refer to similar customs) should all have been independently acquired, they must have been inherited from progenitors who had these same characters.
In Richard Weikart’s 2004 book From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics and Racism in Germany he claims: Darwin clearly believed that the struggle for existence among humans would result in racial extermination. In Descent of Man he asserted, “At some future period, not very distant as measured by centuries, the civilised races of man will almost certainly exterminate and replace throughout the world the savage races.”
According to talk.origins, this is a common creationist quote mine… Apart from the plain meaning of the words, they assert “there is nothing in Darwin’s words to support (and much in his life to contradict) any claim that Darwin wanted the ‘lower’ or ‘savage races’ to be exterminated. He was merely noting what appeared to him to be factual, based in no small part on the evidence of European binge of imperialism and colonial conquest during his lifetime.”
In the Chapter “On the Development of the Intellectual and Moral Faculties during Primeval and Civilised Times” Darwin claimed that “the western nations of Europe, who now so immeasurably surpass their former savage progenitors, and stand at the summit of civilisation, owe little or none of their superiority to direct inheritance from the old Greeks”. While proposing a sole human species, Darwin contrasted the civilized races” with the “savage races”... Moreover, he noted that savage races risked extinction more from white European colonialism, than from evolutionary inadequacy.
Arthur de Gobineau. In An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-55)... claimed that miscegenation would lead to the collapse of civilization. He established the equation of the terms “Germanic race” and “Aryan race”.
Herbert Hope Risley. Colonial administrator (1851-1911) used the ratio of the width of a nose to its height to divide Indian people into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes.
Ernst Haeckel. Like most of Darwin’s supporters, (1834-1919) put forward a doctrine of evolutionary polygenism based on the ideas of the linguist and polygenist August Schleicher, in which several different language groups had arisen separately from speechless prehuman “original humans”, which themselves had evolved from simian ancestors. These separate languages had completed the transition from animals to man, and, under the influence of each main branch of languages, humans had evolved as separate species, which could be subdivided into races. Haeckel divided human beings into ten races, of which the Caucasian was the highest and the primitives were doomed to extinction...
Nationalism: de Lapouge and Herder. At the 19th century’s end, scientific racism conflated Graeco-Roman eugenicism with Francis Galton’s concept of voluntary eugenics to produce a form of coercive, anti-immigrant government programs influenced by other socio-political discourses and events. Such institutional racism was effected via Phrenology, telling character from physiognomy; craniometric skull and skeleton studies; thus skulls and skeletons of black people and other color volk, were displayed between apes and white men.
Nationalism: de Lapouge and Herder. At the 19th century’s end, scientific racism conflated Graeco-Roman eugenicism with Francis Galton’s concept of voluntary eugenics to produce a form of coercive, anti-immigrant government programs influenced by other socio-political discourses and events. Such institutional racism was effected via Phrenology, telling character from physiognomy; craniometric skull and skeleton studies; thus skulls and skeletons of black people and other color volk, were displayed between apes and white men.
In 1906, Ota Benga, a Pygmy, was displayed as the “Missing Link”, in the Bronx Zoo, New York City, alongside apes and animals. The most influential theorists included the anthropologist Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854-1936) who proposed “anthropo-sociology”; and Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803), who applied “race” to nationalist theory, thereby developing the first conception of ethnic nationalism. In 1882, Ernest Renan contradicted Herder with a nationalism based upon the “will to live together”, not founded upon ethnic or racial prerequisites. Scientific racist discourse posited the historical existence of “national races” such as the Deutsche Volk in Germany, and the “French race” being a branch of the basal “Aryan race” extant for millennia, to advocate for geo-political borders parallel to the racial ones.
Craniometry and physical anthropology. The Dutch scholar Pieter Camper (1722-89), an early craniometric theoretician, used “craniometry” (interior skull-volume measurement) to scientifically justify racial differences. In 1770, he conceived of the facial angle to measure intelligence among species of men... Camper’s craniometry reporter that antique statues (the Graeco-Roman ideal) had a 90-degree facial angle, whites an 80-degree angle, blacks a 70-degree angle, and the orangutan a 58-degree facial angle—thus he established a racist biological hierarchy for mankind, per the Decadent conception of history...
Samuel George Morton. In the 19th century, an early American physical anthropologist, physician and polygenist Morton (1799-1851), collected human skulls from worldwide, and attempted a logical classification scheme. Influenced by contemporary racialist theory, Dr. Morton said he could judge racial intellectual capacity by measuring the interior cranial capacity, hence a large skull denoted a large brain, thus high intellectual capacity; superior and inferior established. After inspecting three mummies from ancient Egyptian catacombs, Morton concluded that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since the bible indicated that Noah’s Ark had washed up on Mount Ararat, only a thousand years ago before this, Morton claimed that Noah’s sons could not possibly account for every race on earth. According to Morton's theory of polygenesis, races have been separate from the start. (there’s a book illustration featuring skulls)... Caucasians had the biggest brains… Native Americans were in the middle… Negroes had the smallest brains…
Craniometry and physical anthropology. The Dutch scholar Pieter Camper (1722-89), an early craniometric theoretician, used “craniometry” (interior skull-volume measurement) to scientifically justify racial differences. In 1770, he conceived of the facial angle to measure intelligence among species of men... Camper’s craniometry reporter that antique statues (the Graeco-Roman ideal) had a 90-degree facial angle, whites an 80-degree angle, blacks a 70-degree angle, and the orangutan a 58-degree facial angle—thus he established a racist biological hierarchy for mankind, per the Decadent conception of history...
Samuel George Morton. In the 19th century, an early American physical anthropologist, physician and polygenist Morton (1799-1851), collected human skulls from worldwide, and attempted a logical classification scheme. Influenced by contemporary racialist theory, Dr. Morton said he could judge racial intellectual capacity by measuring the interior cranial capacity, hence a large skull denoted a large brain, thus high intellectual capacity; superior and inferior established. After inspecting three mummies from ancient Egyptian catacombs, Morton concluded that Caucasians and Negroes were already distinct three thousand years ago. Since the bible indicated that Noah’s Ark had washed up on Mount Ararat, only a thousand years ago before this, Morton claimed that Noah’s sons could not possibly account for every race on earth. According to Morton's theory of polygenesis, races have been separate from the start. (there’s a book illustration featuring skulls)... Caucasians had the biggest brains… Native Americans were in the middle… Negroes had the smallest brains…
In The Mismeasure of Man (1981), the historian of science Stephen Jay Gould argued that Samuel Morton had falsified the craniometric data, perhaps inadvertently over-packing some skulls, to so produce results that would legitimize the racial presumptions he was attempting to prove. A subsequent study by the anthropologist John Michael found Morton’s original data to be more accurate than Gould describes, concluding that “contrary to Gould’s interpretation… Morton’s research was conducted with integrity.” Jason Lewis and colleagues reached similar conclusions as Michael in their reanalysis of Morton’s skull collection; however, they depart from Morton’s racist conclusions by adding that “studies have demonstrated that modern human variation is generally continuous, rather than discrete or “racial” and that most variation in modern humans is within, rather than between, populations”.
Nicolas Palacios. After the War of the Pacific (1879-83) there was a rise of racial and national superiority ideas among Chilean ruling class. In his 1918 book physician Nicholas Palacios argued for the existence of Chilean race and its superiority when compared to neighboring peoples. He thought Chileans were a mix of two martial races (Warrior Culture, ideology): the indigenous Mapuches and the Visigoths of Spain, who were ultimately from Gotaland in Sweden. Palacios argued on medical grounds against immigration to Chile from southern Europe claiming that Mestizos who are of south European stock lack “cerebral control” and are a social burden.
Monogenism and polygenism… Typologies. One of the first typologies used to classify various human races was invented by George Vacher de Lapouge (1854-1936), a theoretician of eugenics, who published in 1899 “Aryan white race, dolichocephalic”, to the “brachycephalic” “mediocre and inert” race, best represented by the “Jew”... He became one of the leading inspiration of Nazi antisemitism and Nazi racist ideology.
Nicolas Palacios. After the War of the Pacific (1879-83) there was a rise of racial and national superiority ideas among Chilean ruling class. In his 1918 book physician Nicholas Palacios argued for the existence of Chilean race and its superiority when compared to neighboring peoples. He thought Chileans were a mix of two martial races (Warrior Culture, ideology): the indigenous Mapuches and the Visigoths of Spain, who were ultimately from Gotaland in Sweden. Palacios argued on medical grounds against immigration to Chile from southern Europe claiming that Mestizos who are of south European stock lack “cerebral control” and are a social burden.
Monogenism and polygenism… Typologies. One of the first typologies used to classify various human races was invented by George Vacher de Lapouge (1854-1936), a theoretician of eugenics, who published in 1899 “Aryan white race, dolichocephalic”, to the “brachycephalic” “mediocre and inert” race, best represented by the “Jew”... He became one of the leading inspiration of Nazi antisemitism and Nazi racist ideology.
Vache de Lapouge’s classification was mirrored in William Z. Ripley in The Races of Europe (1899), a book which had a large influence on American white supremacism. Ripley even made a map of Europe according to the alleged cephalic index of its inhabitants. He was an important influence of the American eugenicist Madison Grant.
Furthermore, according to John Efron of Indiana University, the late 19th century also witnessed “the scientizing of anti-Jewish prejudice,” stigmatizing Jews with male menstruation, pathological hysteria, and nymphomania. At the same time, several Jews, such as Joseph Jacobs or Samuel Weissenberg, also endorsed the same pseudo-scientific theories, convinced that the Jews formed a distinct race...
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_supremacy White supremacy, a racist ideology centered upon the belief, and the promotion of the belief, that white people are superior in certain characteristics, traits, and attributes to people of other racial backgrounds and that therefore white people should politically, economically and socially rule non-white people. White supremacy has roots in scientific racism and often relies on pseudo-scientific arguments… White supremacist groups have typically opposed people of color and Jews.
Ideological applications
Ideological applications
Nordicism. Joseph Deniker’s contribution to racist theory was La Race nordique (the Nordic race), a generic, racial-stock descriptor, which the American eugenicist Madison Grant (1865-1937) presented as the white racial engine of world civilization. Having adopted Ripley’s three-race European populace model, but disliking the “Teuton” race name, he transliterated… into “The Nordic race”, the acme of the concocted racial hierarchy, based upon his racial classification theory, popular in the 1910s and 1920s.
Statens institut for rasbiologi (Racial Biology) and its director Herman Lundborg in Sweden were active in racist research. Furthermore, much of early research on Ural-Altaic languages was colored by attempts at justifying the view that European peoples east of Sweden were Asian and thus of inferior race, justifying colonialism, eugenics and racial hygiene.
United States: slavery justified. In the United States, scientific racism justified Black African slavery to assuage moral opposition to the Atlantic slave trade. Alexander Thomas and Samuel Sillen described black men as uniquely fitted for bondage, because of their “primitive psychological organization”. In 1851, in antebellum Louisiana, the physician Samuel A. Cartwright (1793-1863), considered slave escape attempts as “drapetomania”, a treatable mental illness, that “with proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented”. The term drapetomania (mania of the runaway slave) derives from the Greek (drapetes, “a runaway slave” and mania “madness”)... The 1840 United States Census claimed that Northern, free blacks suffered mental illness at higher rates than did their Southern, enslaved counterparts. Thought the census was later found to have been severely flawed by the American Statistical Association, John Quincy Adams, and others, it became a political weapon against abolitionists. Southern slavers concluded that escaping Negroes were suffering from “mental disorders.”
United States: slavery justified. In the United States, scientific racism justified Black African slavery to assuage moral opposition to the Atlantic slave trade. Alexander Thomas and Samuel Sillen described black men as uniquely fitted for bondage, because of their “primitive psychological organization”. In 1851, in antebellum Louisiana, the physician Samuel A. Cartwright (1793-1863), considered slave escape attempts as “drapetomania”, a treatable mental illness, that “with proper medical advice, strictly followed, this troublesome practice that many Negroes have of running away can be almost entirely prevented”. The term drapetomania (mania of the runaway slave) derives from the Greek (drapetes, “a runaway slave” and mania “madness”)... The 1840 United States Census claimed that Northern, free blacks suffered mental illness at higher rates than did their Southern, enslaved counterparts. Thought the census was later found to have been severely flawed by the American Statistical Association, John Quincy Adams, and others, it became a political weapon against abolitionists. Southern slavers concluded that escaping Negroes were suffering from “mental disorders.”
At the time of the American Civil War (1861-65), the matter of miscegenation prompted studies of ostensible physiological differences between Caucasians and Negroes. Early anthropologists, such as Josiah Clark Nott, George Robins Gliddon, Robert Knox, and Samuel George Morton, aimed to scientifically prove that Negroes were a human species different from the white people species; that the rulers of Ancient Egypt were not African; and that mixed-race offspring (the product of miscegenation) tended to physical weakness and infertility. After the Civil War, Southern (Confederacy) physicians wrote textbooks of scientific racism based upon studies claiming that black freemen (ex-slaves) were becoming extinct, because they were inadequate to the demands of being a free man -implying that black people benefited from enslavement.
South African apartheid. Scientific racism played a role in establishing apartheid in South Africa. In South Africa, white scientists, like Dudly Kidd, who published The essential Kafir in 1904, sought to “understand the African mind.” They believed that the cultural differences between whites and blacks in South Africa might be caused by physiological differences in the brain. Rather than suggesting that Africans were “overgrown children,” as early white explorers had, Kidd believed that Africans were “misgrown with a vengeance.” He described African as at once “hopelessly deficient,” yet “very shrewd.”
South African apartheid. Scientific racism played a role in establishing apartheid in South Africa. In South Africa, white scientists, like Dudly Kidd, who published The essential Kafir in 1904, sought to “understand the African mind.” They believed that the cultural differences between whites and blacks in South Africa might be caused by physiological differences in the brain. Rather than suggesting that Africans were “overgrown children,” as early white explorers had, Kidd believed that Africans were “misgrown with a vengeance.” He described African as at once “hopelessly deficient,” yet “very shrewd.”
The Carnegie Commission on the Poor White Problem in South Africa played a key role in establishing apartheid in South Africa. According to one memorandum sent to Frederick Keppl, then president of the Carnegie Corporation, there was “little doubt that if the natives were given full economic opportunity, the more competent among them would soon outstrip the less competent whites”. Keppel’s support for the project of creating the report was motivated by his concern with the maintenance of existing racial boundaries. The preoccupation of the Carnegie Corporation with the so-called poor white problem in South Africa was at least in part the outcome of similar misgivings about the state of poor whites in the American South.
The report was five volumes in length. Around the start of the 20th century, white Americans, and whites elsewhere in the world, felt uneasy because poverty and economic depression seemed to strike people regardless of race.
Though the groundwork for Apartheid began earlier, the report provided support for this central idea of black inferiority. This was used to justify racial segregation and discrimination in the following decades. The report expressed fear about the loss of white racial pride, and in particular pointed to the danger that the poor white would not be able to resist the process of “Africanisation”.
Although scientific racism played a role in justifying and supporting institutional racism in South Africa, it was not as important in South Africa as it has been in Europe and the United States. This was due in part to the “poor white problem” which raised serious questions for supremacists about white racial superiority. Since poor whites were found to be in the same situation as natives in the African environment, the idea that intrinsic white superiority could overcome any environment did not seem to hold. As such, scientific justifications for racism were not as useful in South Africa.
Eugenics. Stephen Jay Gould described Madison Grant’s The Passing of the Great Race (1916) as “the most influential tract of American scientific racism.” In the 1920s-30s, the German racial hygiene ("cleansing") movement embraced Grant’s Nordic theory. Alfred Ploetz (1860-1940) coined the term Rassenhygiene in Racial Hygiene Basics (1895), and founded the German Society for Racial Hygiene in 1905. The movement advocated selective breeding, compulsory sterilization, and a close alignment of public health with eugenics.
Eugenics. Stephen Jay Gould described Madison Grant’s The Passing of the Great Race (1916) as “the most influential tract of American scientific racism.” In the 1920s-30s, the German racial hygiene ("cleansing") movement embraced Grant’s Nordic theory. Alfred Ploetz (1860-1940) coined the term Rassenhygiene in Racial Hygiene Basics (1895), and founded the German Society for Racial Hygiene in 1905. The movement advocated selective breeding, compulsory sterilization, and a close alignment of public health with eugenics.
Racial hygiene was historically tied to traditional notions of public health, but with emphasis on heredity -what philosopher and historian Michel Foucault has called state racism. In 1869, Francis Galton (1822-1911) proposed the first social measures meant to preserve or enhance biological characteristics, and later coined the term “eugenics”. Galton, a statistician, introduced correlation and regression analysis and discovered regression toward the mean. He was also the first to study human differences and inheritance of intelligence with statistical methods. He introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys to collect data on population sets, which he needed for genealogical and biographical works and for anthropometric studies. Galton also founded psychometrics, the science of measuring mental faculties, and different psychology, a branch of psychology concerned with psychological differences between people rather than common traits.
Like scientific racism, eugenics grew popular in the early 20th century, and both ideas influenced Nazi racial policies and Nazi eugenics. In 1901, Galton, Karl Pearson (1857-1936) and Walter F. R. Weldon (1860-1906) founded the Biometrika scientific journal, which promoted biometrics and statistical analysis of heredity. Charles Davenport (1866-1944) was briefly involved in the review. In Race Crossing in Jamaica (1929), he made statistical arguments that biological and cultural degradation followed white and black interbreeding. Davenport was connected to Nazi Germany before and during World War II. In 1939 he wrote a contribution to the festschrift for Otto Reche (1879-1966), who became an important figure within the plan to remove populations considered “inferior” from eastern Germany.
Interbellum to World War II. Scientific racism continued through the early 20th century, and soon intelligence testing became a new source for racial comparisons. Before the Second World War (1939-45), scientific racism remained common to anthropology, and was used as justification for eugenics programs, compulsory sterilization, anti-miscegenation laws, and immigration restrictions in Europe and the United States. The war crimes and crimes against humanity of Nazi Germany (1933-45), discredited scientific racism in academia -but racist legislation based upon it remained in some countries until the late 1960s.
Early intelligence testing and the Immigration Act of 1924. Before the 1920s, social scientists agreed that white were superior to blacks, but they needed a way to prove this in order to back social policy in favor of whites. They felt the best way to gauge this was through testing intelligence. By interpreting the tests to show favor to whites these test makers’ research results portrayal all minority groups very negatively. In 1908, Henry Goddard translated the Binet intelligence test from French and in 1912 began to apply the test to incoming immigrants on Ellis Island. Some claim that in a study of immigrants Goddard reached the conclusion that 87% of Russians, 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, and 79% of Italians were feeble-minded and had a mental age less than 12. Some have also claimed that this information was taken as “evidence” by lawmakers and thus it affected social policy for years. Bernard Davis has pointed out that, in the first sentence of his paper, Goddard argued that the low IQs of the test subjects were more likely due to environment rather than genetic factors, and that Goddard concluded that “we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence and if rightly brought up will be good citizens.” In 1996 the American Psychological Association’s Board of Scientific Affairs stated that IQ tests were not discriminative towards any ethnic/racial groups.
Interbellum to World War II. Scientific racism continued through the early 20th century, and soon intelligence testing became a new source for racial comparisons. Before the Second World War (1939-45), scientific racism remained common to anthropology, and was used as justification for eugenics programs, compulsory sterilization, anti-miscegenation laws, and immigration restrictions in Europe and the United States. The war crimes and crimes against humanity of Nazi Germany (1933-45), discredited scientific racism in academia -but racist legislation based upon it remained in some countries until the late 1960s.
Early intelligence testing and the Immigration Act of 1924. Before the 1920s, social scientists agreed that white were superior to blacks, but they needed a way to prove this in order to back social policy in favor of whites. They felt the best way to gauge this was through testing intelligence. By interpreting the tests to show favor to whites these test makers’ research results portrayal all minority groups very negatively. In 1908, Henry Goddard translated the Binet intelligence test from French and in 1912 began to apply the test to incoming immigrants on Ellis Island. Some claim that in a study of immigrants Goddard reached the conclusion that 87% of Russians, 83% of Jews, 80% of Hungarians, and 79% of Italians were feeble-minded and had a mental age less than 12. Some have also claimed that this information was taken as “evidence” by lawmakers and thus it affected social policy for years. Bernard Davis has pointed out that, in the first sentence of his paper, Goddard argued that the low IQs of the test subjects were more likely due to environment rather than genetic factors, and that Goddard concluded that “we may be confident that their children will be of average intelligence and if rightly brought up will be good citizens.” In 1996 the American Psychological Association’s Board of Scientific Affairs stated that IQ tests were not discriminative towards any ethnic/racial groups.
In his book The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence testing results played a major role in the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924 that restricted immigration to the United States...
Sweden. Following the creation of the first society for the promotion of racial hygiene, the German Society for Racial Hygiene in 1905 -a Swedish society was founded in 1909 as "Svenska sällskapet för rashygien" as third in the world. By lobbying Swedish parliamentarians and medical institutes the society managed to pass a decree creating a government run institute in the form of the Swedish State institute of racial biology in 1921. By 1922 the institute was built and opened at Uppsala University. It was the first such government-funded institute in the world performing research into “racial biology” and remains highly controversial to this day. The goal was to cure criminality, alcoholism and psychiatric problems through research into eugenics and racial hygiene. As a result of the institutes work a law permitting compulsory sterilization of certain groups was enacted in Sweden in 1934. The second president of the institute Gunnar Dahlberg was highly critical of the validity of the science performed at the institute and reshaped the institute toward a focus on genetics. In 1958 it closed down and all remaining research was moved to the institute of genetics at Uppsala University.
Nazi Germany. The Nazi Party and its sympathizers published many books on scientific racism, seizing on the eugenicist and anti-semitic ideas with which they would later become associated, although these ideas had been in circulation since the 19th century. Books such as “Ethnology of the German People” by Ludwig Ferdinand Clauss attempted to scientifically identify differences between the German, Nordic, or Aryan people and other, supposedly inferior, groups. German schools used these books as tests during the Nazi era.
Sweden. Following the creation of the first society for the promotion of racial hygiene, the German Society for Racial Hygiene in 1905 -a Swedish society was founded in 1909 as "Svenska sällskapet för rashygien" as third in the world. By lobbying Swedish parliamentarians and medical institutes the society managed to pass a decree creating a government run institute in the form of the Swedish State institute of racial biology in 1921. By 1922 the institute was built and opened at Uppsala University. It was the first such government-funded institute in the world performing research into “racial biology” and remains highly controversial to this day. The goal was to cure criminality, alcoholism and psychiatric problems through research into eugenics and racial hygiene. As a result of the institutes work a law permitting compulsory sterilization of certain groups was enacted in Sweden in 1934. The second president of the institute Gunnar Dahlberg was highly critical of the validity of the science performed at the institute and reshaped the institute toward a focus on genetics. In 1958 it closed down and all remaining research was moved to the institute of genetics at Uppsala University.
Nazi Germany. The Nazi Party and its sympathizers published many books on scientific racism, seizing on the eugenicist and anti-semitic ideas with which they would later become associated, although these ideas had been in circulation since the 19th century. Books such as “Ethnology of the German People” by Ludwig Ferdinand Clauss attempted to scientifically identify differences between the German, Nordic, or Aryan people and other, supposedly inferior, groups. German schools used these books as tests during the Nazi era.
In the early 1930s, the Nazis used racialized scientific rhetoric based on social Darwinism to push its restrictive and discriminatory social policies. During World War II, Nazi racialist beliefs became anathema (an abomination) in the United States, and Boasians such as Ruth Benedict consolidated their institutional power. After the war, discovery of the Holocaust and Nazi abuses of scientific research (such as Josef Mengele’s ethical violations and other war crimes revealed at the Nuremberg Trials) led most of the scientific community to repudiate scientific support for racism.
Nazi Germany’s racially based social policies placed the improvement of the Aryan race through eugenics at the center of Nazis ideology. Those humans were targeted who were identified as “life unworthy of life”, including but not limited to Jewish people, criminals, degenerate, dissident, feeble-minded, homosexual, idle, insane, and the weak, for elimination from the chain of heredity. Despite their still being regarded as “Aryan”, Nazi ideology deemed Slavs (i.e., Poles, Russians, Ukrainians, etc.) to be inferior to the German master race, suitable for expulsion, enslavement, or even extermination.
Adolf Hitler banned intelligence quotient (IQ) testing for being “Jewish” as did Joseph Stalin for being “bourgeois”.
United States. In the US, eugenicists such as Harry H. Laughlin, and Madison Grant sought to scientifically prove the physical and mental inadequacy of certain ethnic groups to justify compulsory sterilization and restrict immigration, per the Immigration Act of 1924; compulsory sterilization continued until the 1960s and later.
Lothrop Stoddard published many racialist books on what he saw as the peril of immigration, his most famous being The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy in 1920. In this book he presented a view of the world situation pertaining to race focusing concern on the coming population explosion among the “colored” peoples of the word and the way in which “white world-supremacy” was being lessened in the wake of World War I and the collapse of colonialism.
Stoddard’s analysis divided the world politics and situations into “white,” “yellow,” “black,” “Amerindian,” and “brown” peoples and their interactions. Stoddard argued race and heredity were the guiding factors of history and civilization, and that the elimination or absorption of the “white” race by “colored” races would result in the destruction of Western civilization. Like Madison Grant (see, The Passing of the Great Race), Stoddard divided the white race into three main divisions: Nordic, Alpine, and Mediterranean. He considered all three to be of good stock, and far above the quality of the colored races, but argued that the Nordic was the greatest of the three and needed to be preserved by way of eugenics. Unlike grant, Stoddard was less concerned with which varieties of European people were superior to others (Nordic theory), but was more concerned with what he called “bi-racialism,” seeing the world as being composed of simply “colored” and “white” races. In the years after the Great Migration and World War I, Grant’s racial theory would fall out of favor in the U.S in favor of a model closer to Stoddard’s.
An influential publication was The Races of Europe (1939) by Carleton S. Coon, president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists from 1930 to 1961. Coon was a proponent of Multiregional origin of modern humans. He divided Homo sapiens into five main races: Caucasoid race, Congoid race, Capoid race, Mongoloid race, Australoid race.
Coon’s school of thought was the object of increasing opposition in mainstream anthropology after World War II. Ashley Montagu was particularly vocal in denouncing Coon, especially in his Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race. By the 1960s, Coon’s approach had been rendered obsolete in mainstream anthropology, but his system continued to appear in publications by his student John Lawrence Angel as late as in the 1970s.
*see also: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States Racial segregation in the United States. In the late 19th century, the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) United States Supreme Court decision -which upheld the constitutional legality of racial segregation under the doctrine of “separate but equal” -was intellectually rooted in the racism of the era, as was the popular support for the decision. Later, in the mid 20th century, the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) decision rejected racialist arguments about the “need” for racial segregation -especially in public schools.
After 1945. By 1954, 58 years after Plessy v. Ferguson upholding of racial segregation in the United States, American popular and scholarly opinions of scientific racism and its sociologic practice had evolved. In 1960 the journal Mankind Quarterly started, which some see as a venue for scientific racism. It is criticized for a claimed academic hereditarianism. The magazine was a founded in 1960, partly in response to the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education which desegregated the American public schooling.
In April 1966, Alex Haley interviewed American Nazi Party founder George Lincoln Rockwell for Playboy. Rockwell justified his belief that blacks were inferior to whites by citing a long 1916 study by G. O. Ferguson which claimed to show that the intellectual performance of black students was correlated with their percentage of white ancestry, stating “pure negroes, negroes three-fourths pure, mulattoes and quadroons have, roughly, 60, 70, 80 and 90 percent, respectively, of white intellectual efficiency.” Playboy later published the interview with an editorial note claiming the study was a “discredited [...] pseudoscientific rationale for racism.”
International bodies such as UNESCO attempted to draft resolutions that would summarize the state of scientific knowledge about race and issued calls for the resolution of racial conflicts. In its 1950 The Race Question, UNESCO did not reject the idea of a biological basis to racial categories, but instead defined a race as: “A race, from the biological standpoint, may therefore be defined as one of the group of populations constituting the species Homo sapiens”, which were broadly defined as the Caucasian, Mongoloid, Negroid races but stated that “It is now generally recognized that intelligence tests do not in themselves enable us to differentiate safely between what is due to innate capacity and what is the result of environmental influences, training and education.
Today, the term “scientific racism” is used to refer to research seeming to scientifically justify racist ideology. The accusation of scientific racism often is cast upon researchers claiming the existence races and or of quantifiable differences in intelligence among these races, especially if said differences are partly genetic in origin.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization Compulsory sterilization, also known as forced or coerced sterilization, programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical or other sterilization… has been proposed as a means of human population planning… The United States during the Progressive era, ca. 1890 to 1920, was the first country to concertedly undertake compulsory sterilization programs for the purpose of eugenics… The principal targets of the American sterilization programs were the intellectually disabled and the mentally ill, but also targeted under many state laws were the deaf, the blind, people with epilepsy, and the physically deformed… At this time, there were many women that were sent to institutions under the guise of being “feeble-minded” because they were promiscuous or became pregnant while unmarried… In Sunflower County Mississippi, 60% of black women living there were sterilized at Sunflower City Hospital without their permission… The first state to introduce a compulsory sterilization bill was Michigan, in 1897, but the proposed law failed to pass… Indiana became the first state to enact sterilization legislation in 1907, followed closely by California and Washington in 1909… Most sterilization laws could be divided into three main categories of motivations: eugenic (concerned with heredity), therapeutic (based on the idea that sterilization could cure one of sexual traits such as masturbation of pedophilia), or punitive (as a punishment for criminals)... some states (Oregon and North Dakota in particular) had laws which called for the use of castration… After World War II, public opinion towards eugenics and sterilization programs became more negative in the light of the connection with the genocidal policies of Nazi Germany, though a significant number of sterilizations continued in a few states through the 1970s… Oregon… the last forcible sterilization occurring in 1981… 148 female prisoners in two California institutions were sterilized between 2006 and 2010 in a supposedly voluntary program, but it was determined that the prisoners did not give consent to the procedures…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_hygiene Racial hygiene was a set of state-sanctioned policies in the early 20th century by which certain groups of individuals were allowed to procreate and others not, with the expressed purpose of promoting characteristics deemed desirable. The most extensive implementation of such policies occurred in Nazi Germany (Nazi eugenics), but similar policies were implemented throughout Europe, North America, and Southern Africa… Racial hygiene was historically tied to traditional notions of public health, but usually with an enhanced emphasis on heredity… working in 1869 to find a statistical science of heredity which he believed could encourage voluntary care in selecting partners… promoted negative eugenics to prevent those thought to be unsuitable from having children…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereditarianism Hereditarianism is the doctrine or school of thought that heredity plays a significant role in determining human nature and character traits, such as intelligence and personality… believe in the power of genetics to explain human character traits and solve human social and political problems…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Renaissance_(magazine) American Renaissance is a monthly online magazine described as a white supremacist publication by several sources, including The Washington Post, Fortune, and the Anti-Defamation League. It is published by the New Century Foundation, which describes itself as a “race-realist, white advocacy organization”... The organization has held bi-annual conferences that are open to the public and that attract 200–300 people. Critics say some who attend are neo-Nazis, white nationalists, white separatists, Holocaust deniers, and eugenicists…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_denial Holocaust denial is the act of denying the genocide of Jews and other groups in the Holocaust during World War II. Holocaust denial often includes the following claims: that Nazi Germany's Final Solution was aimed only at deporting Jews from the Reich, but that it did not include the extermination of Jews; that Nazi authorities did not use extermination camps and gas chambers to mass murder Jews; and/or that the actual number of Jews killed was significantly lower than the historically accepted figure of 5 to 6 million, typically around a tenth of that figure.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_hygiene Racial hygiene was a set of state-sanctioned policies in the early 20th century by which certain groups of individuals were allowed to procreate and others not, with the expressed purpose of promoting characteristics deemed desirable. The most extensive implementation of such policies occurred in Nazi Germany (Nazi eugenics), but similar policies were implemented throughout Europe, North America, and Southern Africa… Racial hygiene was historically tied to traditional notions of public health, but usually with an enhanced emphasis on heredity… working in 1869 to find a statistical science of heredity which he believed could encourage voluntary care in selecting partners… promoted negative eugenics to prevent those thought to be unsuitable from having children…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereditarianism Hereditarianism is the doctrine or school of thought that heredity plays a significant role in determining human nature and character traits, such as intelligence and personality… believe in the power of genetics to explain human character traits and solve human social and political problems…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Renaissance_(magazine) American Renaissance is a monthly online magazine described as a white supremacist publication by several sources, including The Washington Post, Fortune, and the Anti-Defamation League. It is published by the New Century Foundation, which describes itself as a “race-realist, white advocacy organization”... The organization has held bi-annual conferences that are open to the public and that attract 200–300 people. Critics say some who attend are neo-Nazis, white nationalists, white separatists, Holocaust deniers, and eugenicists…
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocaust_denial Holocaust denial is the act of denying the genocide of Jews and other groups in the Holocaust during World War II. Holocaust denial often includes the following claims: that Nazi Germany's Final Solution was aimed only at deporting Jews from the Reich, but that it did not include the extermination of Jews; that Nazi authorities did not use extermination camps and gas chambers to mass murder Jews; and/or that the actual number of Jews killed was significantly lower than the historically accepted figure of 5 to 6 million, typically around a tenth of that figure.
Links to other Denial of Mass Killings: Armenian Genocide (1.5 million Armenians during WWI); Holodomor (man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine, 1932-33); Nanking Massacre (12/13/1937-1/1938); Serbian genocide (1941-45, concentration camps); Bengali genocide (3/27-28/1971 Comilla Cantonment massacre -Bangladesh, Pakistan); Cambodian genocide (1975-79, Khymer Rouge; Rwandan genocide (April-July 1994, Rwanda, Africa); Srebrenica Massacre (1995, Bosnia).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Solution Final Solution to the Jewish Question was a Nazi plan for the extermination of the Jews during World War II. This policy of deliberate and systematic genocide across German-occupied Europe was formulated in procedural terms by Nazi leadership in Jan. 1942 at the Wannsee Conference near Berlin, and culminated in the Holocaust which saw the killing of 90% of Polish Jewry, and two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe… The program evolved during the first 25 months of war leading to the attempt at “murdering every last Jew in the German grasp.” ...In 1941, wrote Raul Hilberg, in the first phase of the mass murder of Jews, the mobile killing units began to pursue their victims across occupied eastern territories; in the second phase, stretching across all of German-occupied Europe, the Jewish victims were sent on death trains to centralized extermination camps built for the purpose of systematic implementation of the Final Solution.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_Solution Final Solution to the Jewish Question was a Nazi plan for the extermination of the Jews during World War II. This policy of deliberate and systematic genocide across German-occupied Europe was formulated in procedural terms by Nazi leadership in Jan. 1942 at the Wannsee Conference near Berlin, and culminated in the Holocaust which saw the killing of 90% of Polish Jewry, and two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe… The program evolved during the first 25 months of war leading to the attempt at “murdering every last Jew in the German grasp.” ...In 1941, wrote Raul Hilberg, in the first phase of the mass murder of Jews, the mobile killing units began to pursue their victims across occupied eastern territories; in the second phase, stretching across all of German-occupied Europe, the Jewish victims were sent on death trains to centralized extermination camps built for the purpose of systematic implementation of the Final Solution.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einsatzgruppen Einsatzgruppen, were Schutzstaffel (SS) paramilitary death squads of Nazi Germany that were responsible for mass killings, primarily by shooting, during World War II (1939-54).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_question Jewish question, is the name given to a wide-ranging debate in European society pertaining to the appropriate status and treatment of Jews in society. The debate was similar to other so-called "national questions" and dealt with the civil, legal, national and political status of Jews as a minority within society, particularly in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries… The issues included the legal and economic Jewish disabilities (e.g. Jewish quotas and segregation), Jewish assimilation, Jewish emancipation and Jewish Enlightenment… The term “Jewish Question” was first used in Great Britain in around 1750… introduced in western Europe, was a neutral expression for the negative attitude toward the apparent and persistent singularity of the Jews as a people against the background of the rising political nationalisms and new nation-states… From around 1860 the notion took on an increasingly anti semitic-tendency: Jews were described under this title as a stumbling block to the identity and cohesion of the German nation and as enemies within the Germans’ own country… (people named) declared it a racial problem unsolvable through integration, in order to make their demands for the “de-jewifying” of the press, education, culture, state and economy, plausible, along with their demands for the condemnation of intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews. They also used this definition to oust the Jews out of their supposedly socially dominant positions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Naturalisation_Act_1753 Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753, was an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of Great Britain, which received royal assent on 7/7/1753 but was repealed in 1754 due to widespread opposition to its provisions… Jew Bill of 1753, which allowed Jews to become naturalised by application to Parliament, passed the Lords without much opposition, but on being brought down to the House of Commons, the Tories made protest against what they deemed an “abandoment of Christianity.” The Whigs, however, persistent in carrying out at least one part of their general policy of religious toleration, and the bill was passed and received royal assent. The public reacted with an enormous outburst of anti-semitism, and the Bill was repealed in the next sitting Parliament, in 1754
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_state Nation state.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Naturalisation_Act_1753 Jewish Naturalisation Act 1753, was an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of Great Britain, which received royal assent on 7/7/1753 but was repealed in 1754 due to widespread opposition to its provisions… Jew Bill of 1753, which allowed Jews to become naturalised by application to Parliament, passed the Lords without much opposition, but on being brought down to the House of Commons, the Tories made protest against what they deemed an “abandoment of Christianity.” The Whigs, however, persistent in carrying out at least one part of their general policy of religious toleration, and the bill was passed and received royal assent. The public reacted with an enormous outburst of anti-semitism, and the Bill was repealed in the next sitting Parliament, in 1754
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation_state Nation state.
“uncivilized” peoples in 1970.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korowai_people are hunter-gatherers and horticulturalists who practice shifting cultivation. They have a few gender-specific activities…Before the 1970s, the Korowai people of Papua were an uncontacted people. Their population numbers no more than 3,000. Leadership structures are based on personal qualities of big men, rather than on institution. Inter-clan warfare occurs mainly because of witchcraft and sorcery-related conflicts. The practice of cannibalism as a form of criminal justice...
With respect to death and afterlife the Korowai believe in the existence of a reciprocal type of reincarnation: those who died can be sent back at any time to the land of the living, by their kinsmen in the land of the dead, in order to reincarnate in a newly born infant of their own clan.
Architecture. Korowai houses, high stilt structures, well above flood-water levels, is a form of defensive fortification -to disrupt rival clans from capturing people (especially women and children) for slavery or cannibalism. The height also serves to protect the house from arson attacks in which huts are set alight and the inhabitants smoked out.
Film: Lords of the Garden (1970)
http://www.worldcat.org/title/lords-of-the-garden/oclc/165276923 Lords of the Garden…
(Jody Gray) I downloaded the Lords of the Garden, Journals onto my Laptop…
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-wX3rWTCOGw youtube video *subtitled
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-lvGQFR3Ec youtube video *English
http://listverse.com/2013/01/24/10-tribes-that-avoided-modern-civilization/ Tribes that avoided modern civilization.
http://listverse.com/2013/01/24/10-tribes-that-avoided-modern-civilization/ Tribes that avoided modern civilization.
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A resurgence came in the late 19th century with the Scramble for Africa (see) and major additions in Asia and the Middle East… The pseudo-sciences of Social Darwinism and theories of race formed an ideological underpinning during this time…
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