Ancient Migrations, Maps, Slideshows

(Jody Gray): after creating the Blog Post, Genetics, DNA; I wanted to learn more about (origins) human migration, so I began to Google… learning about the different periods e.g. Paleolithic and cultural periods e.g. Ahrensburg culture is overwhelming for a beginner such as myself… I decided to create a Blog Post that relates more specifically to my ancestors e.g. Germanic Tribes mostly focusing on visual aspects using maps and slide-shows…

  If, like me, you are a beginner in these fields, you may want to read the Terminology at the end of this Blog Post…
https://en.wikipedia. *Indo-European Migrations, Slideshow. An incredible visual tool... (watch for the Germanic Tribes area - southern Scandinavia and northern Germany - in purple, after "the Corded Ware")

"the oldest attested evidence of post-glacial resettlement of Scandinavia dates from 11,000 BCE with the appearance of the Ahrensburg culture" -but, before we look at that map (following Wikipedia links) the Ahrensburg culture was preceded by the Magdalenian culture, refers to one of the later cultures of the Upper Paleolithic in western Europe, dating from around 17,000 to 12,000 years ago. https://en.wikipedia. *Magdalenian culture. I'm including the map, as a visual tool, even though its a French map, you can see how the area was populated.

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https://en.wikipedia. *Ahrensburg culture or Ahrensburgian (11th to 10th BP) was a late Upper Paleolithic nomadic culture in north-central Europe during the Younger Dryas, the last spell of cold at the end of the Weichsel glaciation resulting in deforestation and the formation of a tundra with bushy arctic white birch and rowan. The most important prey was the the wild reindeer. The earliest definite finds of the arrow and bow date to this culture, though these weapons might have been invented earlier... finds were made in southern and western Scandinavia, the North German plain and western Poland. The culture is named after a tunnel valley near the village of Ahrensburg northeast of Hamburg in the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, where find layers were excavated…

Origin. Ahrensburg culture belongs to a Late Paleolithic and early Mesolithic cultural complex that started with the glacial recession and the subsequent disintegration of Late Palaeolithic cultures between 15,000 and 10,000 BCE. The extinction of mammoth and other megafauna provided for an incentive to exploit other forms of subsistence that included maritime resources. Northward migrations coincided with the warm Bolling and Allerod events, but much of northern Eurasia remained inhabited during the Younger Dryas. During the holocene climatic optimum, the increased biomass led to a marked intensification in foraging by all groups, the development of inter-group contacts, and ultimately, the initiation of agriculture.

  ...The re-colonisation of Northern Germany is connected to the onset of the late Glacial Interstadial between Weichsel and the Dryas I glaciation, at the beginning of the Meiendorf interstadial around 12.700 BCE. Palynological results demonstrate a close connection between the prominent temperature rise at the beginning of the Interstadial and the expansion of the hunter-gatherers into the northern Lowlands…

Scandinavia, Hensbacka group. The earliest reliable traces of habitation in the northern territories of Norway and western Sweden date to the transition period from the Younger Dryas to the Preboreal. More favorable living conditions, and past experience gained through seasonal rounds, prompted increased maritime resource exploitation in the northern territories. The Hensbacka group on the west coast of Sweden exemplifies the cultural fragmentation process that took place within the Continental Ahrensburgian. Instead of new immigration's at the beginning of the Mesolithic, the discovery of deposited bones and new dating indicate that there was no (significant) break in settlement continuity. New knowledge provides aspects for a further autochthonous development, with a rapid climate change stimulating a swift cultural change.
(early Mesolithic period) followed by the https://en.wikipedia. Maglemosian culture 9000-6000 BC in Scandinavia. https://en.wikipedia. Swiderian culture 11,000-8,200 BC (Poland) recognized as a distinctive culture that developed on the sand dunes left behind by the retreating glaciers. followed by https://en.wikipedia. Kongemose culture a mesolithic hunger-gatherer culture in southern Scandinavia ca 6000 BC-5200 BC (western Zealand) the main economy was based on hunting red deer, roe deer, and wild boar, supplemented by fishing at the coastal settlements. followed by

https://en.wikipedia. Ertebolle culture (ca 5,300 BCE-3950 BCE) is the name of a hunter-gatherer and fisher, pottery-making culture dating to the end of the Mesolithic period. The culture was concentrated in Southern Scandinavia, but genetically linked to strongly related cultures in Northern Germany and the Northern Netherlands. It is named after the type site, a location in the small village of Ertebolle on Limfjorden in Danish Jutland. In the 1890s it was excavated... it is approximately identical to the Ellerbek culture of Schleswig-Holstein, the combined name, Ertebolle-Ellerbek is often used. The Ertebolle did not practice agriculture but it did utilize domestic grain in some capacity, which it must have obtained from the south... (Skeletal remains) The Ertebolle and preceding Kongemose populations were of mixed race. On the one hand they did not differ from the current inhabitants of Denmark in skeleton... Genetic analysis indicates that the Cro-magnons were ancestral to the current population of Europe. There is no evidence of superficial features such as coloration or details of facial tissue, and nothing to suggest that the Cro-magnons of Europe were the only ancestors of Europeans or that features considered Europoid were not found elsewhere. Two hypotheses concerning the origin of the Ertebolle population are therefore possible and have been proposed. One is that in the remains we are seeing an intermediate phase in the evolution of the Nordics. The second is that the Ertebolle population were an admixture of agrarian southerners with indigenous Cro-magnons over a permeable border. Both views are supported by the evidence. Evidence of conflict. More significant is evidence of cannibalism at Dyrholmen, Jutland and Mollegabet on Ero. There human bones were broken open to obtain the marrow. As cannibalism is not practiced to obtain food, the next likely explanation is that the warlike Ertebolle population ritually devoured its enemies in order to ingest their powers. followed by...

https://en.wikipedia.*Funnelbeaker culture, in short TRB (c 4300 BC-2800 BC) was an archaeological culture in north-central Europe. (named for its characteristic ceramics, beakers and amphorae with funnel-shaped tops, which were found in dolmen burials.) It developed as a technological merger of local neolithic and mesolithic techno-complexes between the lower Elbe and middle Vistula rivers, introducing farming and husbandry as a major source of food to the pottery-using hunter-gatherers north of this line… The TRB techno-complex is divided into a northern group including modern northern Germany and southern Scandinavia… Settlements. With the exception of some inland settlements, the settlements are located near those of the previous Ertebolle culture on the coast. It was characterized by single-family daubed houses c. 12m x 6m. It was dominated by animal husbandry of sheep, cattle, pigs and goats, but there was also hunting and fishing. One find… shows the oldest known depiction of a wagon, presumably drawn by aurochs (an extinct type of large wild cattle) whose remains were found with the pot. Primitive wheat and barley was grown on small patches that were fast depleted, due to which the population frequently moved small distances. There was also mining and collection of flint-stone, which was traded into regions lacking the stone, such as the Scandinavian hinterland. The culture used copper from Silesia, especially daggers and axes.

Religion and graves. The houses were centered on a monumental grave, a symbol of social cohesion. Burial practices were varied, depending on region and changed over time. Inhumation (placing a dead person with objects into the ground) seems to have been the rule. The oldest graves consisted of wooden chambered cairns inside long barrows, but were later made in the form of passage graves and dolmens (a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more vertical megaliths [large stones] supporting a large flat horizontal capstone). Originally, the structures were probably covered with a heap of dirt and the entrance was blocked by a stone… At graves, the people sacrificed ceramic vessels that contained food along with amber jewelry and flint-axes. Flint-axes and vessels were also deposed in streams and lakes near the farmlands, virtually all Sweden’s 10,000 flint axes that have been found from this culture were probably sacrificed in water. (there are photos of several dolmens on this webpage) Genetics. the question of continuity versus migration at the cusp of the cultural change was of interest to geneticists specializing in ancient DNA. A sample of Corded Ware people from Germany has been modeled as three-quarters Yamnaya, clear evidence of migration into the heartland of Europe from its eastern periphery... It has been suggested that the Funnelbeaker culture was the origin of the gene allowing adults of Northern European descent to digest lactose. It was claimed that in the area formerly inhabited by this culture, prevalence of the gene is virtually universal... (TRB) was the culture in which this trait started to co-evolve with the culture of dairying. followed by...

https://en.wikipedia. Corded Ware culture ca 2900 BC-2350 BC. (period, Chalcolithic Europe) compromises a broad Indo-European archaeological horizon of Europe (including,
continental Europe and Jutland Peninsula and southern Sweden). The Corded Ware (named after cord-like impressions or ornamentation characteristics of its pottery) was genetically strongly related to the Yamnaya culture, suggesting that it originated from migrations from the Erasiatic steppes... Geography. Archaeologists note that Corded Ware was not a "unified culture," as Corded Ware groups inhabiting a vast geographical area from the Rhine to Volga seem to have regionally specific subsistence strategies and economies. There are differences in the material culture and in settlements and society. At the same time, they had several shared elements, such as their burial practices, pottery with "cord" decoration and unique stone-axes. Origins. results from testing ancient DNA from Corded Ware graves... show that the Corded Ware population was derived overwhelmingly from the pastoral Yamnaya population... On most of the immense, continental expanse that it covered, the culture was clearly intrusive, and therefore represents one of the most impressive and revolutionary cultural changes attested by archaeology... newer palaeogenomic data showing that the Corded Ware population had an ancestry derived at least 75% from the Yamnaya population of the steppes... Corded Ware is seen as intrusive, though not necessarily aggressively so, and coexisting with earlier indigenous cultures in many cases. Genetic studies. In terms of phenotypes... the intrusive Yamnaya population, generally inferred to be the first speakers of an Indo-European language in the Corded Ware culture zone, were overwhelmingly dark-eyes (brown), dark-haired and had a skin color that was moderately light, though somewhat darker than the average modern European. These studies also showed that light pigmentation traits had already existed in pre-Indo-European Neolithic Europeans (in both farmers and hunter-gatherers)... Neolithic farming migration into Europe "was driven by mass migration of both males and females in roughly equal numbers, perhaps whole families" While Bronze Age Pontic steppe "migration and cultural shift were instead driven by male migration, potentially connected to new technology and conquest." West-European Indo-European languages. The Corded Ware culture may have played a central role in the spread of the Indo-European languages in Europe during the Copper and Bronze Ages. "the common prehistoric ancestor of the later Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, and possibly some of the Indo-European languages of Italy." Language shift. essentially a cultural transformation, not one of physical type. The Yamnaya migration from Eastern to Central and Western Europe is understood by Gimbutas as a military victory, resulting in the Yamnaya imposing a new administrative system, language and religion upon the indigenous groups. The social organization greatly facilitated the Yamnaya people's effectiveness in war, their patrilineal and patriarchal structure. The Old Europeans (indigenous groups) had neither a warrior class nor horses. They lived in (probably) theocratic monarchies presided over by a queen-priestess or were egalitarian society. This Old European social structure contrasted with the social structure of the Yamnaya-derived cultures that followed them. David Anthony (2007), proposes that the spread of the Indo-European languages probably did not happen through "chain-type fold migrations," but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people, a process which he calls "elite recruitment"... (supplementary information) shows that "the Steppe hypothesis does not require elite dominance to have transmitted Indo-European languages into Europe... could have been introduced simply by strength of numbers: via major migration in which both sexes participated. (another theory) the Corded Ware culture's intrusion into Scandinavia formed a synthesis with the indigenous people of the Funnelbeaker culture, giving birth to the Proto-Germanic language... modern German derives from non-Indo-European-speakers of Funnelbeaker culture, indigenous to southern Scandinavia. Language continuity. In opposition to the invasionist theories, Marios Alinei has supported the continuity of languages in the area of the Corded Ware (as elsewhere in Europe) since the Paleolithic... he stressed the universal character of the innovations generally connected to the people of the Corded Ware (such as a special mixture of farming and nomadic pastoralism, and the patrilineal and patriarchal structures connected to the latter)...
Economy. Some evidence of sedentary farming emerged. Traces of emmer, common wheat and barley were found... wheeled vehicles (presumably drawn by oxen) are in evidence... Cow's milk was used systematically from 3400 BC on-wards in the norther Alpine fore-land. Sheep were kept more frequently in the western part of Switzerland... Changes in slaughter age and animal size are possibly evidence for sheep being kept for their wool... Graves. Burial occurred in flat graves or below small tumuli (a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave aka barrows) in a flexed position; on the continent males lay on their right side, females on the left, with the faces of both oriented to the south. However, in Sweden and also parts of norther Poland the graves were oriented north-south, men lay on their left side and women on the right side - both facing east. Originally, there was probably a wooden construction, since the graves are often positioned in a line. This is contrast with practices in Denmark where the dead were buried below small mounds with vertical stratigraphy: the oldest below the ground, the second above this grave, and occasionally even a third burial above those. Other types of burials are the niche-graves of Poland. Grave good for men typically included a stone battle axe. Pottery in the shape of beakers and other types are the most common burial gifts... In April 2011, it was reported that a deviant Corded Ware burial had been discovered in a suburb of Prague. The remains, believed to be male, were orientated in the same way as women's burials and were not accompanied by any gender-specific grave goods. The excavators suggested the grave may have been that of a "member of a so-called third gender, which were people either with different sexual orientation or transsexuals or just people who identified themselves differently from the rest of society", while media reports heralded the discovery of the world's first "gay cavemen". Archaeologists and biological anthropologists criticized media coverage as sensationalist. "If this burial represents a trans-gendered individual, that doesn't necessarily mean the person had a 'different sexual orientation' and certainly doesn't mean that he would have considered himself (or that his culture would have considered him) "homosexual"...
Swedish-Norwegian Battle Axe culture. appeared ca. 2800 BC and is known from about 3000 graves from Scania to Uppland and Trondelag. The "battle-axes" were primarily a status object. There are strong continuities in stone craft traditions, and very little evidence of any type of full-scale migration, least of all a violent one. The old ways were discontinued as the corresponding cultures on the continent changed, and the farmers living in Scandinavia took part in those changes since they belonged to the same network. Settlements on small, separate farmsteads without any defensive protection is also a strong argument against the people living there being aggressors... the appearance of metal changed the social system. This is marked by the fact that the Funnelbeaker culture had collective megalithic graves with a great deal of sacrifices to the graves, but the Battle Axe culture has individual graves with individual sacrifices. A new aspect was given to the culture in 1993, when a death house in Turinge, in Sodermanland was excavated... (the earliest find) of cremation in Scandinavia -shows close contacts with Central Europe. In the context of the entry of Germanic into the region, Einar Ostmo emphasizes that the Atlantic and North Sea coastal regions of Scandinavia, and the circum-Baltic areas were united by a vigorous maritime economy, permitting a far wider geographical spread and a closer cultural unity than interior continental cultures could attain. He points to the widely disseminated number of rock carvings assigned to this era, which display "thousands" of ships. To seafaring cultures like this one, the sea is a highway and not a divider. Finnish Battle Axe culture was a mixed cattle-breeder and hunter-gatherer culture... followed by...

https://en.wikipedia. Beaker Culture (illustration, left) Generalized distribution and movements of Bell-Beaker cultures. (Bronze Age Europe) c. 2800-1800 BC. Beaker culture is the term for a widely scattered 'archaeological culture' of prehistoric western Europe starting in the late Neolithic or Chalcolithic and running into the early Bronze Age (based on the distinctive pottery drinking beakers shaped like an inverted bell) -not only a particular pottery type, but also a complete and complex cultural phenomenon involving metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze, archery, specific types of ornamentation and shared ideological, cultural and religious ideas. The Bell Beaker period marks a period of cultural contact in Atlantic and Western Europe on a scale not seen previously, nor seen again in succeeding periods... It is important to note that underlying the Bell beaker superstratum existed a wide diversity in local burial styles (including incidences of cremation rather than burial), housing styles, economic profile and local coarse ceramic wares which continued to persist... Not all Beakers were drinking cups... They were used as status display among disparate elites. Origins. There have been numerous proposals by archaeologists as to the origins of the Bell Beaker culture... and various mechanisms of spread, including migrations of populations ("folk migrations"), smaller warrior groups, individuals (craftsmen), or a diffusion of ideas and object exchange... Furthermore, the burial ritual which typified Bell Beaker sites was intrusive into Western Europe. Individual burials, often under tumuli burials, with the inclusion of weapons contrast markedly to the preceding Neolithic traditions of often collective, weaponless burials in Atlantic/Western Europe. Such an arrangement is rather derivative of Corded Ware traditions although, instead of 'battle-axes', Bell Beaker individuals used copper daggers. Expansion and cultural contact. The initial moves from the Tagus estuary were maritime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where 'enclaves' were established in south-western Spain and southern France around the Golfe du Lion and into the Po valley in Italy, probably via ancient western Alpine trade routes used to distribute jadeite axes. A northern move incorporated as southern coast of Armorica. The enclave established in southern Brittany was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire, and across the Gatinais valley to the Seine valley, and thence to the lower Rhine. This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions and it was via this network that Maritime Bell Beakers first reached the Lower Rhine in about 2600 BC... The earliest copper production in Ireland, identified at Ross Island in the period 2400-2200 BC, was associated with early Beaker pottery. Here the local sulpharsenide ores were smelted to produce the first copper axes used in Britain and Ireland. The same technologies were used in the Tagus region and in the west and south of France. The evidence is sufficient to support the suggestion that the initial spread of Maritime Bell Beakers along the Atlantic and into the Mediterranean, using sea routes that had long been in operation, was directly associated with the quest for copper and other rare raw materials. Migration vs. acculturation... This new knowledge may have come about by any combination of population movements and cultural contact. An example might be as part of a prestige cult related to the production and consumption of beer, or trading links such as those demonstrated by finds made along the seaways of Atlantic Europe. Palynological studies including analysis of pollen, associated with beer brewing. Noting the distribution of Beakers was highest in areas of transport routes, including fording sites, river valleys and mountain passes... The investigation of over 300 sites showed that human groups actually moved in a process that involved explorations, contacts, settlement, diffusion, and acculturation/assimilation... analysis of 86 people from Bell Beaker graves in Bavaria suggest that 18-25% of all graves were occupied by people who came from a considerable distance outside the area. This was true of children as well as adults, indicative of some significant migration wave. Given the similarities with readings from people living on loess soils, the general direction of the local movement... is from the northeast to the southwest. Extent and impact. Bell Beaker people took advantage of transport by sea and rivers, creating a cultural spread extending from Ireland to the Carpathian Basin and south along the Atlantic coast and along the Rhone valley to Portugal, North Africa and Sicily... The new international trade routes opened by the Beaker people became firmly established and the culture was succeeded by a number of Bronze Age cultures...

Iberian Peninsula. The Bell Beaker phenomenon in the Iberian Peninsula defines the late phase of the local Chalcolithic and even intrudes in the earliest centuries of the Bronze Age... With some notable exceptions, most Iberian early Bell Beaker burials are at or near the coastal regions... The presence of perforated Beaker pottery, traditionally considered to be used for making cheese... confirms the introduction of production and conservation of dairy. Also, the presence of spindles... point to knowledge of making thread and textiles from wool. However, more details on the strategies for tending and slaughtering the domestic animals involved as forthcoming.
Central Europe. Beaker culture settlements in Southern Germany and in the East-Group show evidence of mixed farming and animal husbandry, and indicators such as millstones and spindle whorls prove the sedentary character of the Bell Beaker people, and the durability of their settlements. Especially some well-equipped child-burials seem to indicate a socially complex society. However, analysis of grave furnishing, size and deepness of grave pits, position within the cemetery, did not lead to any strong conclusions on the social divisions... Ireland. The advent of the Bronze Age Beaker culture in Ireland is accompanied by the destruction of smaller satellite tombs at Knowth and collapses of the great cairn at Newgrange, marking the end of the Neolithic culture of megalithic passage tombs... The Wessex/Middle Rhine gold discs bearing "wheel and cross" motifs that were probably sewn to garments, presumably to indicate status... In a tumulus the find of the extended skeleton of a woman accompanied by the remains of a red deer and a small seven-year-old stallion is noteworthy, including the hint to a Diana-like religion. A few burials seem to indicate social status, though in other contexts an emphasis to special skills is more likely... One of the most important sites in Ireland during this period is Ross Island. A series of copper mines from here are the earliest known in Ireland, starting from around 2500 BC. A comparison of chemical traces and lead isotope analysis from these mines with copper artifacts strongly suggests that Ross Islands was the sole source of copper in Ireland between the dates 2500-2200 BC. In addition, two thirds of copper artifacts from Britain also display the same chemical and isotopic signature, strongly suggesting that Irish copper was a major export to Britain... The 'bronze halberd' was a weapon in use in Ireland from around 2400-2000 BC. They were essentially broad blades that were mounted horizontally on a meter long handle, giving greater reach and impact than any known contemporary weapon. They were subsequently widely adopted in other parts of Europe possibly showing a change in the technology of warfare... Britain. Beakers arrived in Britain around 2500 BC, declined in use around 2200-2100 BC with the emergence of food vessels and cinerary urns... Britain's only unique export in this period is thought to be tin. It was probably gathered in streams in Cornwall and Devon as cassiterite pebbles and traded in this raw, unrefined state. It was used to turn copper into bronze from around 2200 BC and widely traded throughout Britain and into Ireland... The most famous site in Britain from this period is Stonehenge, which had its Neolithic form elaborated extensively. Many barrows surround it and an unusual number of 'rich' burials can be found nearby, such as the Amesbury Archer. Another site of particular interest is Ferriby on the Humber estuary, where western Europe's oldest plank built boat was recovered. Jutland. In Denmark, large areas of forested land were cleared to be used for pasture and the growing of cereals during the Single Grave culture and in the Late Neolithic Period... Northern Jutland has abundant sources of high quality flint, which had previously attracted industrious mining, large-scale production, and the comprehensive exchange of flint objects: notably axes and chisels. The Danish Beaker period, however, was characterized by the manufacture of lanceolate flint daggers, described as a completely new material form without local antecedents in flint and clearly related to the style of daggers circulating elsewhere in Beaker dominated Europe... The introductory phase of the manufacture and use of flint daggers, around 2350 BC, must all in all be characterized as a period of social change. (institutional apprenticeship system must have existed) Craftsmanship was transmitted by inheritance in certain families living in the vicinity of abundant resources of high-quality flint... Noteworthy was the adoption of European-style woven wool clothes kept together by pins and buttons in contrast to the earlier usage of clothing made from leather and plant fibers. Two-aisle timber houses in Late Neolithic Denmark correspond to similar houses in southern Scandinavia and at least parts of central Scandinavia and lowland northern Germany. In Denmark, this mode of building houses is clearly rooted in a Middle Neolithic tradition... Skeletal studies. Historical craniometric studies found that the Beaker people appeared to be of a different physical type than those earlier populations in the same geographic areas. They were described as tall, heavy boned and brachycephalic (skull is relatively broad and short). Genetic studies. (The study) found, via autosomal analysis, that the majority of post-Neolithic populations in Europe, including their ancient samples taken from Beaker culture sites in central Europe, are the result of a three-way miscegenation process between the Yamnaya; Neolithic farmers; and western European hunter-gatherers who were present in Europe since at least the Mesolithic. From a mitochondrial DNA perspective, haplogroup H, which has the high incidence throughout Europe, has received similar attention... suggested that it arose 28-23 thousand years ago, spreading into Europe before then re-expanding from an Iberian glacial refuge... Whilst such studies are insightful, even if the dates postulated by authors are correct, they do not necessarily imply that the spread of a particular genetic marker represents a distinct population, 'tribe' or language group. Genetic studies have often been treated with suspicion not only by archaeologists and cultural anthropologists, but even by fellow population geneticists. (Jody Gray): there are no "followed by" links for the Beaker culture...

Terminology:
(BCE). Before Current Era… Common Era or Current Era (CE). is a year-numbering system (calendar era) for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i.e., since AD 1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era (BCE). The Current Era notation can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD (the year of the Lord) and BC (before Christ)... In the later 20th century, the use of CE (Current Era) and BCE (Before Current Era) was popularized in academic and scientific publications, and more generally by authors and publishers wishing to emphasize secularism or sensitivity to non-Christians, by not explicitly referencing Jesus or “Christ” and “Lord” -”in the year of Our Lord Jesus Christ”. BCE usage increasing since 1980… https://en.wikipedia.

*(BP) Before Present - “Before Physics” - (relating to radiocarbon dating) years is a time scale used mainly in geology and other scientific disciplines to specify when events occurred in the past. Because the “present” time changes, standard practice is to use Jan 1, 1950 as commencement date of the age scale, reflecting the fact that radiocarbon dating became practical in the 1950s. The abbreviation “BP”, with the same meaning, has also been interpreted as “Before Physics”; that is, before nuclear weapons artificially altered the proportion of the carbon isotopes in the atmosphere, making dating other after that time likely to be unreliable. https://en.wikipedia. *

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Patrilineality [https://en.wikipedia.], also known as the male line, the spear side, or agnatic kinship, is a common kinship system in which an individual’s family membership derives from and is recorded through his or her father’s lineage. It generally involves the inheritance of property, rights, names, or titles by persons related through male kin. A patriline (“father line”) is a person’s father, and additional ancestors, as traced only through males. In the Bible. In the Bible the family membership and tribe membership is through the fathers, for example a person will be a Jew if his father is a Jew. And all the tribes are called Israelites because their father is Israel (Jacob). Because of this they are called the “chosen people” (not the “chosen religion”) by virtue of being “sons of Israel”, that is, the biological male descendants of Israel, ther “father” in the sense of lineal male ancestor.

Egalitarian [https://www.reference.com.], is a society that believes in treating people equally through giving people equal rights and opportunities. This belief is referred to as egalitarianism, which advocates human equality, with respect to economic, political and social rights. It also pushes for elimination of any form of inequality in the society and discrimination based on gender, race, religion, sexual orientation and the like…

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Blog Post: Genetics, DNA. http://historicalandmisc. *

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